Lesson 19: Explanation of Polygenic and Epistasis

1- Lesson 01: Respiratory Surface and Properties 2- Lesson 02: Components of Human Respiratory System 3- Lesson 03: Ventilation Mechanism in Humans 4- Lesson 04: Lung Volumes and Capacities 5- Lesson 05: Control of Breathing 6- Lesson 06: Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide 7- Lesson 07: Role of Respiratory Pigments 8- Lesson 08: Respiratory Tract Infections 9- Lesson 09: Disorders of Lungs 10- Lesson 10: Effects of Smoking on Respiratory System 11- Lesson 01: Elements of Homeostatic Mechanisms 12- Lesson 02: Homeostatic Mechanisms and Feedback Systems 13- Lesson 03: Osmoconformers and Osmoregulators 14- Lesson 04: Osmoregulation 15- Lesson 05: Problems Faced by Osmoregulators 16- Lesson 06: Osmoregulation in Different Habitats 17- Lesson 07: Nitrogenous Compounds in Excretion 18- Lesson 08: Excretory Products and Habitat 19- Lesson 09: Organs of the Urinary System 20- Lesson 10: Structure of Kidney and its Function 21- Lesson 11: Structure of Nephron 22- Lesson 12: Kidney Functioning - Glomerular Filtration, Selective Reabsorption, and Tubular Secretion 23- Lesson 13: Regulation of Urine Concentration 24- Lesson 14: Kidneys as Excretion and Osmoregulation Organs 25- Lesson 15: Comparison of Glomerular and Peritubular Capillaries 26- Lesson 16: Urinary Tract Infections and Responsible Bacteria 27- Lesson 17: Causes and Treatments of Kidney Stones 28- Lesson 18: Causes of Kidney Failure 29- Lesson 19: Dialysis - Mechanism and Problems 30- Lesson 20: Kidney Transplant - Principles and Problems 31- Lesson 21: Thermoregulation and its Needs 32- Lesson 22: Classification of Animals Based on Heat Source 33- Lesson 23: Classification of Animals Based on Thermoregulation Ability 34- Lesson 24: Regulatory Strategies in Human Thermoregulation 35- Lesson 01: Structure of Bone and Comparison with Cartilage 36- Lesson 02: Functions of Osteoblasts, Osteoclasts, and Osteocytes 37- Lesson 03: Divisions of the Human Skeleton 38- Lesson 04: Bones of Appendicular and Axial Skeleton 39- Lesson 05: Types of Joints - Fibrous, Cartilaginous, and Synovial 40- Lesson 06: Disorders of the Human Skeleton 41- Lesson 07: Types of Fractures and Repair Process 42- Lesson 08: First-Aid Treatment for Fracture 43- Lesson 09: Comparison of Smooth Muscles, Cardiac Muscles, and Skeletal Muscles 44- Lesson 10: Ultra-structure of Skeletal Muscle 45- Lesson 11: Sliding Filaments Model of Muscle Contraction 46- Lesson 12: Antagonistic Muscles in Knee Joint Movement 47- Lesson 13: Muscle Fatigue, Cramps, and Tetany 48- Lesson 14: Tetanus vs. Muscle Tetany 49- Lesson 01: Receptors as Stimulus Transducers 50- Lesson 02: Path of Message Transmission to the CNS 51- Lesson 03: Three Neurons in Nervous Transmission 52- Lesson 04: Muscles and Glands as Effectors 53- Lesson 05: Structure of Sensory, Associative, and Motor Neurons 54- Lesson 06: Myelinated vs. Non-myelinated Neurons 55- Lesson 07: Function of Three Types of Neurons with Reflex Arc 56- Lesson 08: Nerve Impulse Definition 57- Lesson 09: Generation and Transmission of Nerve Impulse 58- Lesson 10: Factors for Resting Membrane Potential of Neuron 59- Lesson 11: Graphical Representation of Membrane Phenomena 60- Lesson 12: Velocities of Nerve Impulse 61- Lesson 13: Role of Local Circuits in Saltatory Conduction 62- Lesson 14: Structure of Synapse 63- Lesson 15: Synaptic Transmission of Nerve Impulse 64- Lesson 16: Classification of Neurotransmitters 65- Lesson 17: Main Components of the Nervous System 66- Lesson 18: Functions of Major Divisions of the Brain 67- Lesson 19: Architecture of Human Brain 68- Lesson 20: Cranial and Spinal Nerves 69- Lesson 21: Autonomic Nervous System 70- Lesson 22: Receptors for Smell, Taste, and Touch/Pain 71- Lesson 23: Narcotic Drugs and their Interaction with the Nervous System 72- Lesson 24: Use and Abuse of Drugs 73- Lesson 25: Drug Addiction and Tolerance 74- Lesson 26: Effects of Drug Addiction and Tolerance on the Nervous System 75- Lesson 27: Withdrawal Symptoms of Alcohol 76- Lesson 28: Classification of Nervous Disorders 77- Lesson 29: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment of Various Nervous Disorders 78- Lesson 30: Diagnostic Tests for Nervous Disorders - EEG, CT Scan, and MRI 79- Lesson 01: Role of Hormones as Chemical Messengers 80- Lesson 02: Chemical Nature of Hormones and Important Examples 81- Lesson 03: Path of Chemical Message from Release to Action 82- Lesson 04: Two Modes of Hormone Action at Target Cells 83- Lesson 05: Location of Endocrine Glands in the Human Body 84- Lesson 06: Hormonal Secretions of Endocrine Glands 85- Lesson 07: Major Functions and Imbalances of Hormones 86- Lesson 08: Neurosecretory Role of Hypothalamus 87- Lesson 09: Functions of Hormones Secreted by Other Endocrine Tissues 88- Lesson 10: Feedback Mechanism of Hormones 89- Lesson 11: Positive and Negative Feedback with Reference to Hormones 90- Lesson 01: Definition of Behavior 91- Lesson 02: Relationship Between Stimuli and Behavior 92- Lesson 03: Relationship Between Heredity and Behavior 93- Lesson 04: Biological Rhythms and Examples 94- Lesson 05: Definition of Innate (Inborn) Behavior 95- Lesson 06: Examples of Innate Behavior (Taxis and Tropism) 96- Lesson 07: Justification of Reflexes as Innate Behavior 97- Lesson 08: Definition of Instincts as Innate Behavior 98- Lesson 09: Examples of Species-Specific Instinctive Behavior 99- Lesson 10: Definition of Learning and Distinction from Innate Behavior 100- Lesson 11: Definition and Example of Habituation 101- Lesson 12: Explanation of Imprinting Through Lorenz's Work 102- Lesson 13: Differentiation of Habituation and Imprinting 103- Lesson 14: Classical Conditioning and Pavlov's Work 104- Lesson 15: Instrumental Conditioning and Skinner's Work 105- Lesson 16: Latent Learning and Example of a Rat in a Maze 106- Lesson 17: Interpretation of Kohler's Work on Chimpanzee's Insight Learning 107- Lesson 18: Differentiation Between Animal Aggregations and Animal Societies 108- Lesson 19: Description of Hostile and Helpful Interactions in Social Behavior 109- Lesson 20: Explanation of Agonistic Behavior and Its Role in Social Order 110- Lesson 21: Explanation of Territorial Behavior Through Monkey and Gorilla Examples 111- Lesson 22: Explanation of Dominance Hierarchy Through Chicken Example 112- Lesson 23: Definition of Altruism and Illustration Through Honeybee Society 113- Lesson 01: Structures of Male Reproductive System and Their Functions 114- Lesson 02: Principal Reproductive Hormones in Human Males 115- Lesson 03: Structures of Female Reproductive System and Their Functions 116- Lesson 04: Menstrual Cycle and Hormonal Regulation 117- Lesson 05: Causes of Female and Male Infertility 118- Lesson 06: In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF) as a Solution to Infertility 119- Lesson 07: Definition and Causes of Miscarriage 120- Lesson 08: Relationship Between Miscarriage and Abortion 121- Lesson 09: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment of Gonorrhea and Syphilis 122- Lesson 10: Explanation of AIDS as a Worldwide Sexually Transmitted Disease 123- Lesson 01: Cleavage and Its Relation to Yolk Amount 124- Lesson 02: Events of Gastrulation 125- Lesson 03: Tissues and Organs Formed from Germ Layers 126- Lesson 04: Events of Neurulation 127- Lesson 05: Formation of Neural Crest and Derivatives 128- Lesson 06: Definition of Organogenesis 129- Lesson 07: Role of Nucleus and Cytoplasm in Development 130- Lesson 08: Overview of Hans Spemann's Work in the Discovery of Induction 131- Lesson 09: Definition of Organizers and Differentiation Between Primary and Secondary Induction 132- Lesson 10: Events of Development in Human Trimesters 133- Lesson 11: Development of Twins and Quadruplets 134- Lesson 12: Structural Details of Placenta and Umbilical Cord 135- Lesson 13: Differentiation Between Gestation and Pregnancy 136- Lesson 14: Role of Fetal and Maternal Hormones in Labor 137- Lesson 15: Definition of Premature Birth and Correlation with Growth Phases 138- Lesson 16: Definition of Afterbirth and Detachment of Umbilical Cord 139- Lesson 17: Definition of Colostrum and Hormonal Role in Milk Production 140- Lesson 18: Hormonal Regulation at the End of Milk Production 141- Lesson 19: Comparison of Breastfeeding and Bottle-feeding 142- Lesson 20: Maternal Derived Abnormalities and Developmental Issues 143- Lesson 21: Genetic Abnormalities in Embryos and Spontaneous Abortion 144- Lesson 22: Fetal Surgery to Correct Developmental Problems 145- Lesson 23: Definition of Allometric Growth and Correlation with Postnatal Development 146- Lesson 24: Definition of Aging 147- Lesson 25: Rationalizing Aging as a Part of Normal Development 148- Lesson 26: Factors Responsible for Aging (Genetic and Extrinsic) 149- Lesson 27: Changes in Primary Aging 150- Lesson 28: Changes in Secondary Aging 151- Lesson 29: Changes at System and Cellular Levels During Aging 152- Lesson 01: Association of Inheritance with Mendel's Laws 153- Lesson 02: Explanation of the Law of Independent Assortment 154- Lesson 03: Expression of Limitations in the Law and Its Usefulness 155- Lesson 04: Statement of the Scope of Independent Assortment in Variation 156- Lesson 05: Evaluation of Inheritance and Mixing During Fertilization as Probabilistic 157- Lesson 06: Description of Exceptions to Mendel's Laws 158- Lesson 07: Explanation of Incomplete Dominance and Example in 4 O’clock Plant 159- Lesson 08: Differentiation Between Incomplete Dominance and Co-dominance 160- Lesson 09: Description of Multiple Alleles and Alleles for ABO Blood Groups 161- Lesson 10: Explanation of Two Alleles with Equal Dominance and Genetics of AB Blood Group 162- Lesson 11: Naming Various Human Blood Group Systems 163- Lesson 12: Association of Multiple Alleles with the ABO Blood Group System 164- Lesson 13: Investigation of Reasons for O-negative as Universal Donor and AB-positive as Universal Recipient 165- Lesson 14: Description of Occurrence of Other Blood Group Systems 166- Lesson 15: Association of Positive and Negative Blood Groups with the Presence and Absence of Rh Factor 167- Lesson 16: Justification of Rh Incompatibility Danger to Fetus and Mother 168- Lesson 17: Explanation of Erythroblastosis Fetalis in Light of Antigen-Antibody Reaction 169- Lesson 18: Measures to Counter Erythroblastosis Fetalis Before Occurrence 170- Lesson 19: Explanation of Polygenic and Epistasis 171- Lesson 20: Description of Polygenic Inheritance with Examples from Plants and Animals 172- Lesson 21: Listing Five Polygenic Traits Discovered in Humans 173- Lesson 22: Relating Polygenic Inheritance with Epistasis 174- Lesson 23: Example of Epistasis in Mammals and Plants with Justification of Modified Mendelian Ratios 175- Lesson 24: Description of Gene Linkage and Crossing Over 176- Lesson 25: Explanation of How Gene Linkage Counters Independent Assortment and Crossing-Over Modifies Progeny 177- Lesson 26: Exemplification of Gene Linkage with Drosophila Example 178- Lesson 27: Suggestion of Large Progeny Size for Linkage Observations 179- Lesson 28: Explanation of XX-XY Mechanism of Sex Determination in Drosophila and Mammals 180- Lesson 29: Description of XX-XO and ZZ-ZW Sex Determination Systems and Karyotype Evaluation 181- Lesson 30: Identification of Differences Between Homogametic and Heterogametic Conditions in Human Karyotype 182- Lesson 31: Identification of Male and Female Individuals in Drosophila and Man Karyotypes 183- Lesson 32: Solving Genetics Problems Related to Sex Determination 184- Lesson 33: Description of the Concept of Sex-Linkage 185- Lesson 34: Explanation of the Inheritance of Sex-Linked Traits in Drosophila 186- Lesson 35: Description of Sex-Linked Inheritance of Male Characters and the Effect of Hollandric Genes 187- Lesson 36: Description of Sex-Influenced and Sex-Limited Traits with Examples from Human Genetics 188- Lesson 37: Description of X-Linked Disorders with Reference to Patterns of Inheritance 189- Lesson 38: Naming Some Sex-Linked Disorders of Man and Drosophila 190- Lesson 39: Critical Analysis of the Inheritance of Haemophilia, Colour Blindness, and Muscular Dystrophy 191- Lesson 01: Critical Analysis of the History of Chromosomal Theory with Reference to Correns’ Work 192- Lesson 02: Critical Analysis of the Experiments of T.H. Morgan Supporting Chromosomal Theory 193- Lesson 03: Annotation of the Detailed Structure of a Chromosome 194- Lesson 04: Description of the Concept of Gene and Gene Locus 195- Lesson 05: Explanation of Alleles as Alternative Forms of a Gene 196- Lesson 06: Narration of Griffith and Hershey-Chase Experiments on DNA as Hereditary Material 197- Lesson 07: Description of Three Models Proposed for DNA Replication Mechanism 198- Lesson 08: Narration of Meselson and Stahl's Work on Semi-conservative DNA Replication 199- Lesson 09: Description of Events in the Process of DNA Replication 200- Lesson 10: Explanation of DNA Stability and Variability as Characteristics of Replicating DNA 201- Lesson 11: Description of the Central Dogma of Gene Expression 202- Lesson 12: Definition of Gene and Genetic Code 203- Lesson 13: Differentiation Between Genetic Code and Codon 204- Lesson 14: Explanation of the Mechanism of Transcription 205- Lesson 15: Explanation of the Shortening of Transcribed mRNA Molecule in Eukaryotes 206- Lesson 16: Differentiation of Protein Synthesis in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes 207- Lesson 17: Suggestion of Possible Uses of Synthesized Proteins Within or Outside a Cell 208- Lesson 18: Importance of Gene Expression Regulation 209- Lesson 19: Description of Negative Control of Gene Expression by Repressor Proteins 210- Lesson 20: Description of Positive Control of Gene Expression by Activator Proteins 211- Lesson 21: Relation of Gene Expression with Introns and Exons 212- Lesson 22: Definition of Mutation and Identification of Various Sources 213- Lesson 23: Differentiation Between Natural and Induced Mutations and Mutagens 214- Lesson 24: Justification That Most Mutations Are Harmful 215- Lesson 25: Rationalization That Mutations Might Contribute to Evolution 216- Lesson 26: Description of Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments of Chromosomal Mutations 217- Lesson 27: Description of Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments of Gene Mutations 218- Lesson 01: Description of Creationism and the Theory of Evolution 219- Lesson 02: Differentiation Between Convergent and Divergent Evolution 220- Lesson 03: Description of Theories on the Evolution of Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes 221- Lesson 04: Description of Lamarck's Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters 222- Lesson 05: Description of Darwin's Observations During HMS Beagle Voyage 223- Lesson 07: Description of Ideas by Charles Lyell, James Hutton, and Thomas Malthus 224- Lesson 08: Description of Alfred Wallace's Role in the Development of Darwinism 225- Lesson 09: Justification for Attribution of the Theory to Darwin 226- Lesson 10: Explanation of Hardy-Weinberg Theorem and Its Assumptions 227- Lesson 11: Explanation of Genetic Drift (Neutral Selection) 228- Lesson 12: Explanation of the Concept of Speciation and Its Mechanisms 229- Lesson 13: Listing Vestigial Structures in Humans and Categorizing Them 230- Lesson 06: Explanation of Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection 231- Lesson 14: Description and Analysis of Technological Contributions to Evolutionary Understanding 232- Lesson 01: Definition of Biogeochemical Cycles and Primary Reservoirs 233- Lesson 02: Detailed Description of Water Cycle 234- Lesson 03: Definition of Aquifers and Water Table 235- Lesson 04: Detailed Description of Nitrogen Cycle 236- Lesson 05: Explanation of Productivity (Gross and Net Primary Productivity) 237- Lesson 06: Explanation of Energy Flow in Trophic Levels 238- Lesson 07: Interpretation of Pyramids of Number, Biomass, and Energy 239- Lesson 08: Definition of Ecological Succession and Description of Types 240- Lesson 09: Differentiation Between Xerarch and Hydrarch Succession 241- Lesson 10: Explanation of Xerarch Succession on a Bare Rock 242- Lesson 11: Description of Population Characteristics 243- Lesson 12: Explanation of Demographic Principles and Population Growth Issues 244- Lesson 13: Analysis of the Role of Population Welfare Department, Government of Pakistan 245- Lesson 14: Relating Nuclear Power to Fossil Fuel Scarcity 246- Lesson 15: Discussing Problems of Nuclear Power 247- Lesson 16: Identifying Causes of Increasing Carbon Dioxide Concentration 248- Lesson 17: Correlating CO2 Concentration with Global Warming 249- Lesson 18: Explaining Causes and Effects of Acid Rain 250- Lesson 19: Describing Composition and Role of Ozone Layer 251- Lesson 20: Stating Sources of Chlorofluorocarbons and Ozone Depletion 252- Lesson 21: Explaining Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation 253- Lesson 22: Narrating the Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster 254- Lesson 23: Distinguishing Between Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources 255- Lesson 24: Describing Human Responsibility for Depleting Environmental Resources 256- Lesson 25: Discussing Conventional and Non-Conventional Energy Resources 257- Lesson 26: Analyzing Environmental Education Efforts 258- Lesson 01: Defining Gene Cloning 259- Lesson 02: Describing Gene Cloning Techniques 260- Lesson 03: Explaining Restriction Endonucleases and DNA Ligases 261- Lesson 04: Describing Gene Selection and Isolation 262- Lesson 05: Explaining Vectors in Recombinant DNA Technology 263- Lesson 06: Stating Steps for DNA Insert Integration into Vectors 264- Lesson 07: Describing Vector Selection for DNA Insert Uptake 265- Lesson 08: Explaining Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) for Gene Amplification 266- Lesson 09: Describing Genomic Library Construction 267- Lesson 10: Explaining DNA Sequencing Methods 268- Lesson 11: Describing Gel Electrophoresis for Gene Sequencing 269- Lesson 12: Introducing Automated DNA Sequencing 270- Lesson 13: Describing DNA Analysis Mechanisms 271- Lesson 14: Defining Genome Analysis, Genome Map, and Genetic Markers 272- Lesson 15: Stating the History of the Human Genome Project 273- Lesson 16: Describing the Goals of the Human Genome Project 274- Lesson 17: Predicting Benefits of the Human Genome Project 275- Lesson 18: Defining Terms in Plant Tissue Culture 276- Lesson 19: Explaining Tissue Culture and Differentiating Organ and Cell Culture 277- Lesson 20: Differentiating Callus and Suspension Culture Techniques 278- Lesson 21: Describing Various Plant Tissue Culture Techniques 279- Lesson 22: Explaining Animal Tissue Culture Techniques 280- Lesson 23: Stating Objectives of Transgenic Organisms 281- Lesson 24: Describing Methods for DNA Introduction into Cells/Embryos 282- Lesson 25: Describing Biotechnology's Role in Plant Resistance 283- Lesson 26: Stating Human Gene Transfers in Animals 284- Lesson 27: Describing the Role of Transgenic Bacteria 285- Lesson 28: Discussing Ecological Concerns with Transgenic Bacteria 286- Lesson 29: Describing Genetic Engineering in Farm Animals 287- Lesson 30: Describing Biotechnological Production of Vaccines 288- Lesson 31: Stating Biotechnology's Role in Disease Diagnosis 289- Lesson 32: Describing Products Obtained for Disease Treatment 290- Lesson 33: Explaining Methods for Gene Therapy 291- Lesson 34: Describing Gene Therapies in Detection and Treatment 292- Lesson 35: Explaining Gene Therapy for Cystic Fibrosis 293- Lesson 36: Describing Scope and Importance in Human Welfare 294- Lesson 37: Listing Hazards and Ethical Implications of Gene Technology 295- Lesson 01: Explaining Integrated Disease Management 296- Lesson 02: Describing Vaccination and Its Importance 297- Lesson 03: Listing Common Viral Diseases Requiring Vaccination 298- Lesson 04: Describing the Role of Vaccines in Disease Prevention 299- Lesson 05: Stating Vaccination Schedules 300- Lesson 06: Describing Animal Husbandry and Its Economic Role 301- Lesson 07: Listing Outstanding Milk Producing Breeds 302- Lesson 08: Describing Methods for Plant Improvements 303- Lesson 09: Explaining Home Gardening and Its Importance 304- Lesson 10: Identifying Seasonal Vegetable and Fruit Plants for Home Gardening 305- Lesson 11: Explaining the Role of Microbes in Various Applications